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A Note from History
Early Use of Chemical Weapons in Warfare

In the form of poisoned arrows, toxic roots and even windblown dirt, chemical weapons have been in use for thousands of years. As early as 590 B.C., Solon of Athens is said to have used hellebore roots (a purgative) to poison a water aqueduct during the siege of Cirrha, and later on, the ancient Chinese, Romans, and Greeks employed their own chemical warfare tactics and agents. Although crude by today's standards, early chemical weapons were nonetheless effective enough to play a valuable role in warfare throughout the course of history.

Without the sophisticated manufacturing facilities and techniques employed today, ancient civilizations made chemical weapons out of nearby materials. Around the 4th century B.C., when enemies threatened the Mohist sect in ancient China by digging tunnels to advance an attack, the Mohists made a debilitating smoke by burning mustard and toxic vegetables. Using ox-hide bellows, they pumped the choking smoke into the tunnels to discourage their enemies' advance. The Chinese are also credited with the "five-league fog"—a smoky by-product of burning gunpowder combined with other irritants. In addition to using chemical weapons in war, the Chinese also used them for riot control. In 178 A.D., the Chinese dispersed finely divided lime into the air to quell a peasant revolt. Chemical weapon formulas were recorded in Chinese military manuals to preserve them for future use.

Roman historian Cassius Dio documents another instance of early chemical warfare in his book, Roman History XIX. When the Aestolians rebelled against Rome in 187 B.C., the Romans besieged the Aestolian city of Ambracia. In an effort to take the city, the Romans tried to burrow their way inside. To stop their advance, the Aestolians filled a large jar with feathers, ignited them, then covered the jar with a perforated lid and placed it into the tunnel. Smoke laden with feather particles filled the tunnel and forced back the Romans, who called a truce.

In Life of Sertorius, Plutarch describes Roman soldier Quintus Sertorius' creative use of a normally benign "agent." Sertorius was engaged in battle with the Characitanes when the latter hid themselves inside seemingly impenetrable caves. To flush them out, Sertorius ordered his men to pile a mound of dirt near the front of the caves. When the cavalrymen then rode through the mound, they stirred up a dirt-filled "particle aerosol" that prompted the surrender of the Characitanes.

In addition to the Romans, the Byzantine Greeks employed their own chemical weapons. In 679 A.D. Kallinikos of Heliopolis is thought to have invented Greek Fire, a substance which, when set ablaze, remained lit even when submerged in water. The Byzantines heated this flammable liquid and then sprayed enemy ships with it during sea battles. Although its actual composition is unknown, Greek Fire may have consisted of sulfur, quicklime and liquid petroleum. Unlike the Chinese, the Europeans generally avoided writing down chemical weapon formulas for fear of losing them to the enemy.

In early chemical warfare, innovation took the place of sophistication. As crude as these early weapons were, their careful selection and thoughtful use made them effective. By making the most of the materials and delivery methods available to them, civilizations throughout history successfully employed simple agents to gain a tactical advantage on their enemies.